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This paper was commissioned by the Global Education Monitoring Report as background information to assist in drafting the 2024 Spotlight Report on basic education completion and foundational learning in Africa. It has not been edited by the team. The views and opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to the Global Education Monitoring Report or to UNESCO. The papers can be cited with the following reference: “Paper commissioned for the 2024 Spotlight Report on basic education completion and foundational learning in Africa”.